Table 1 Sub-system feedback loops and overarching mechanisms

Environmental, migration and psychosocial factors

B1: PA skills and experience ➔- use of diverse PA offer ➔ + 

organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + PA skills and experience

Overarching mechanism:

Physical activity is promoted through opportunities to “learn by doing”:

R1: PA skills and experience ➔ + prioritisation of PA ➔ + organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + PA skills and experience

Underlying mechanisms:

1. Strengthening PA skills and experience through increased PA participation

2. Prioritisation of PA leading to increased PA skills and experience

3. Bolstering awareness of PA advantages through increased access to PA facilities and classes

R2: awareness of advantages of PA ➔ + knowledge of PA ➔ + self-efficacy for PA ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + awareness of advantages of PA

R3: PA skills and experience ➔ + self-efficacy for PA ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + awareness of advantages of PA ➔ + organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + PA skills and experience

Environmental, migration and sociocultural factors

R1: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + concerns about safety ➔- perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

Overarching mechanism:

Sociocultural influences present barriers to participation in physical activity; increasing access can overcome these barriers over time:

R2a: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔- level of acculturation and integration ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R2b: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔- level of acculturation and integration ➔- concerns about safety ➔- perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R2c: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔- level of acculturation and integration ➔ + language proficiency and knowledge of host country ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R2d: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔- level of acculturation and integration ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R2e: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔- level of acculturation and integration ➔ + access to and awareness of need for culturally-appropriate PA facilities ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R3a: level of acculturation and integration ➔ + access to and awareness of need for culturally-appropriate PA facilities ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration

R3b: level of acculturation and integration ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration

R3c: level of acculturation and integration ➔- concerns about safety ➔- perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration

R3d: level of acculturation and integration ➔ + language proficiency and knowledge of host country ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration

R3e: level of acculturation and integration ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + concerns about safety ➔- perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration

Underlying mechanisms:

1. Concerns about safety, low levels of acculturation, low language proficiency and knowledge of host country, time and energy constraints and reduced opportunities for social connection contributing to growing impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations through increasingly reduced access to appropriate PA facilities and classes.

2. High levels of acculturation and integration are bolstered by opportunities for social connection obtained through increased access to (culturally-appropriate) physical activity facilities, supported by fewer concerns about safety and increased language proficiency and knowledge of host country.

3. Time and energy constraints (arising from family and work commitments alongside additional challenges of living in a new country or facing discrimination) reduce participation in workplace physical activity classes and social connection which could otherwise increase access to local physical activity facilities and classes.

4. More organised workplace physical activity classes can lead to reduced time and energy constraints by increasing opportunities for social connection, levels of integration, perceived access of physical activity classes and reducing the time commitments needed to participate in physical activity.

B1: time and energy constraints ➔- organised opportunities for PA at school and workplace ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- time and energy constraints

R4a: institutional engagement with target population ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + importance of religious and cultural practices ➔- (perceived) number of school facilities ➔ + institutional engagement with target population

R4b: (perceived) number of school facilities ➔ + access to sex-segregated PA facilities and instruction ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + importance of religious and cultural practices ➔- (perceived) number of school facilities

R5a: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + time and energy constraints ➔- organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R5b: impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations ➔ + time and energy constraints ➔- organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration ➔- impact of gender roles, expectations and obligations

R5c: organised opportunities for PA at school or workplace ➔ + opportunities for social connection ➔ + level of acculturation and integration ➔ + perceived access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- time and energy constraints ➔- organised opportunities for PA at school and workplace

Environmental, migration and health and health communication factors

B1a: ill health and pain ➔ + advice and instrumental support from healthcare ➔ + access to sex-segregated PA facilities and instruction ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- concerns about safety ➔- physical fitness ➔- ill health and pain

Overarching mechanism:

Effective health communication can enable management of health conditions through physical activity:

B1b: ill health and pain ➔- mental health ➔ + advice and instrumental support from healthcare ➔ + access to sex-segregated PA facilities and instruction ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- concerns about safety ➔- physical fitness ➔- ill health and pain

Underlying mechanism:

1. Poorer physical and co-morbid mental health can be managed through guided use of appropriate physical activity facilities and instruction.

Environmental, migration and social and material resources factors

B1a: (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- concerns about safety ➔ + use of motorised private transport ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes

Overarching mechanism:

Multi-faceted access characteristics influencing the use of motorised transport over active travel:

B1b: (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔- concerns about safety ➔ + use of motorised private transport ➔- opportunities for active travel ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes

Underlying mechanism:

1. The use of motorised transport is sustained due to physical activity facilities being perceived as distant or inaccessible through increased concerns about safety and reduced opportunities for active travel to such facilities.

R1a: (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes ➔ + opportunities for active travel ➔- use of motorised private transport ➔ + (perceived) access, proximity and affordability of PA facilities and classes