Table 1 Types of built food environments and factors associated with consumers’ APF choices

Supermarkets

Plant-based APF

Barriers:

1. APF perceived by consumers as difficult to find (presented in less prominent sections, inconsistencies in exposition between different supermarkets, or shorter shelf length)

2. Barriers to availability may include retailers’ beliefs

(a) better to wait for high demand signals before increasing availability

(b) including APF in meat or dairy sections will reduce supermarket profits

(c) presenting APF far away from meat sections will satisfy vegetarians

3. Consumers willing to pay more for APF in international chains than in domestic discount stores (perceived lower quality in discount stores as a barrier)

Insect-based APF

Barriers:

1. Retailers using e-commerce (instead of increasing availability in supermarkets) may be a barrier to increased intake

2. Perceived lack of availability in supermarkets as a barrier to consumers’ intention to eat

Facilitators:

1. Consumers’ trust/confidence in APF may be higher if APF are widely available in supermarkets (instead of sales mostly via e-commerce)

Groceries/other food retailers

Plant- based APF

Barriers

1. Selling APF from vegetarian or produce shelves/sections associated with lower actual sales; selling from meat sections – higher sales

2. Key barrier indicated by the consumers who intended to try/eat APF: “APF not available where I usually shop for food” (Note: consumers who are undecided to eat APF rarely indicate this barrier)

3. Availability of APF limited to specialty shops and e-commerce

Facilitators

1. Selling APF products presented side by side with meat products (in the same refrigerators) results in higher sales of APF; the refrigerators visible from the shop entrance: higher sales of APF

2. Frequent ‘green shopping’ related to higher willingness to pay

3. Frequent specialty food store shopping related to higher approval

4. Availability of APF across different food retail outlets (not only in specialty shops or via e-commerce) in line with consumers’ preferences

5. Purchase of APF more likely among students shopping for food outside of campus compared to those shopping for food mostly on campus

Insect-based APF

Neutral characteristic

1. Similar (low) intention to buy, perceived attractiveness regardless the types of packaging (with insect visible vs. insect powder + a Latin name)

Farmer’s markets

Plant-based APF

Barrier

1. Adult consumers are less likely to buy at small farmers’ markets than at popular larger grocery stores (e.g., on their way home from work, at/near the public transportation stop)

Insect-based APF

Facilitator

1. Older consumers willing to buy APF if they are available from local producers at local famers’ markets

Restaurants

Plant-based APF

Barriers

1. Young omnivorous men: being seen as an APF consumer in a vegetarian restaurant as a threat for masculinity; lining up with other men or visiting with a female romantic partner may reduce this barrier

2. Beliefs about low social approval for eating APF is a barrier for acceptance of eating APF in restaurants or eating at business lunches

3. Among men, high frequency of dining out at restaurants with friends (findings for Dutch and German men, but not French) may be a barrier

Facilitators

1. Predictions of experts in haute cuisine: APF will be a strong trend in EU restaurants (together with local food)

2. Creating a social image of a restaurant as promoting novel food; chef’s discourse on sustainability and authenticity

3. Eating APF considered more appropriate in casual situations, (compared to more formal, celebratory occasions)

4. Consumers’ ability to easily find the APF in menus related to higher willingness to pay

5. Restaurants are the most preferred or 2nd most preferred location where consumers are willing to try (versus cafés, pubs, bars, homes)

6. Higher frequency of eating out in restaurants related to higher willingness to pay

Insect-based APF

Barriers

1. The majority (68%) of consumers believed insects are not served in gourmet restaurants

Facilitators

1. Restaurants indicated as the most preferred environment to try insect-based APF. Preferably, “with an expert” and “someone who knows how to prepare it”

2. The image of a restaurant: being an environmental advocate

3. Insects invisible in the meal (in contrast to visible insects), name ambiguity, deliberate beautification and garnishing related to lower anxiety when trying new APF, higher attractiveness, and higher likelihood of buy and to eat APF

Schools

Plant based APF

Barriers

1. Public schools not offering any APF for lunches

Online vendors

Insect-based APF

Barriers

1. E-commerce 5 times more likely to be used as a distribution channel by the producers (versus physical locations for sales, e.g. groceries)

2. Consumers preferences for APF to be distributed in places where they usually buy their food (supermarkets, etc.) not mostly via e-commerce

Food festivals

Plant-based APF

Facilitators

1. Food events or food festivals perceived as the most adequate environment to try new APF (homes, cafés, pubs: less preferred)

2. Taking part in a gastronomic event or a trip

Insect based APF

Facilitators

1. Food event or food festival perceived as the most adequate environment to try insect-based APF

Vending machines

Plant-based APF

Facilitators

1. APF sold as a snack from a vending machine